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Arlington
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War
PAGE CONTENTS:
Who Fights America's Wars?
The Shortest War in History
The Spanish-American
War
Top 5 Causes of World War I
December 7, 1941
The Korean War
The Pentagon has twice as many restrooms as necessary. When it was
built, segregation was still in place in Virginia, so separate restrooms for blacks and whites were required by law.
Who Fights America's Wars?
By Colleen Kelly
The U.S. soldiers in today's fights are strictly volunteers. But the
American armed forces haven't always been staffed that way. Here's how various American armies--with a mix of volunteers
and conscripts--came to be.
Revolutionary War (1775-83)
It's one of the best-known stories of the Revolutionary War.
Upon getting word that the British were on the move, hundreds of "minutemen" grabbed their weapons and scrambled
to Lexington and Concord. Citizen-soldiers, lined up to fight for their freedom--this was exactly what the nation's founders
envisioned when they pictured who would wage the war for independence.
The problem was, the militiamen were a little
too independent themselves. When harvest or planting time rolled around, they headed home to take care of their farms. Commander-in-chief
George Washington complained that the volunteers "consume your provisions, exhaust your stores, and leave you at last
in a critical moment."
So, while militias certainly did their part, the hard slog of year-round soldiering
was borne by the Continental Army. In September 1776, Congress voted to give a new suit of clothes, $20, and a hundred acres
of land to anyone who would enlist for the duration of the war. Before long, the ranks of the "Continentals" were
filled with teenage boys, who enlisted with their buddies for what they thought would be an adventure.
In 1777, Congress
told each state how many men it would have to recruit for the Continental Army. The states, in turn, gave quotas to the towns.
Men facing these quotas had three options: join the army, pay a fine, or send a substitute instead. Apprentices--young, unmarried,
and powerless--had "substitute" written all over them. They joined the teenagers already in the army.
Congress authorized
a 75,000-man army, but the Continentals never topped 35,000. During some campaigns, militias swelled the American ranks, but
historians estimate that there were still never more than 90,000 men under arms for the United States at one time.
Civil War (1861-65)
A month before Confederate
soldiers fired on Fort Sumter, the South had no army at all. The Federal Army of the Union had barely 16,000 men to command.
Over the course of four years, though, nearly 1 million men would serve for the Confederacy, and 2 million would serve for
the Union.
Men were eager to volunteer at the beginning of the war--before anyone realized how long and bitter the fight would
be. On both sides, states raised local units of volunteers. Those units were then attached to the army, and the men marched
off to war alongside their brothers and neighbors.
In 1862, as the number of casualties increased, and the number of volunteers decreased,
the Confederacy instituted a draft. Over the conflict, draftees made up about one-fifth of the men who served in the Confederate
army. The proportion consistently rose as the war dragged on.
In the North, the federal government instituted
a draft in 1863. Each state, based on its population, had a quota for how many men it had to provide to the Union army. In
the end, though, only about 2 percent of Union soldiers were conscripts. When they saw that military service was inevitable,
men chose to enlist--and receive a sizable cash bonus--rather than wait to be drafted.
On both sides,
the draft was far from fair. Poor southerners resented that men who owned more than 20 slaves were exempt. In the North, men
could buy their way out of serving. Cost: $300, about a year's pay for a laborer. And both armies accepted substitutes.
If you got someone to go in your place, you were off the hook.
World War I (1914–18)
U.S. declares war April 1917 By
the time the United States entered World War I, Americans had been hearing for years about horrific campaigns costing hundreds
of thousands of lives. So, when President Wilson said America would join the war, men were not knocking down the doors at
the recruiting stations.
To quickly mobilize a large force, Congress passed the Selective Service Act of
1917. It put an end to enlistment bonuses and the hiring of substitutes. For the first time, local draft boards were established
to weigh the case of each potential soldier. If you were clergy or a family man, your draft board might exempt you. But if
you were a jobless and single 21-year-old, you'd better start learning the verses to "Over There," because that's
where you were headed.
The Selective Service System registered more than 23 million men and drafted about
2.8 million of them. Of the 3.5 million Americans in the wartime army, 72 percent were draftees. The Navy, Marines, National
Guard, and Coast Guard were mostly staffed with volunteers.
World War II (1939-45)
U.S. declares war December 1941 Even before the
Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor at the end of 1941, the United States was making preparations for what would become the largest
and bloodiest war in history. Across the globe, nearly 70 million people served in the armed forces during World War II. By
the end of the war, about 20 million of them had perished.
In 1940, as the British and French battled Hitler's
army, Congress passed the nation's first peacetime conscription act. The law required every man in the United States between
21 and 36 to register with the Selective Service System. A few years later, the age range was expanded to 18 to 45. Between
1940 and 1947, 49 million men registered for the draft--more than a third of all Americans.
The Selective
Service System that built up the armed forces in World War I was fine-tuned even more for World War II. More than 6,000 local
draft boards made decisions about how to classify the men who came before them. The classifications ranged from 1-A (available
for service) to 4-F ("physically, mentally, or morally disqualified"). Deferments went to men whose jobs were vital
to the war effort, such as farmers and scientists.
In all, the Selective Service drafted more than 10 million men--nearly two-thirds
of all American servicemen in World War II. About 5.5 million men volunteered to serve. Most went into the Army Air Corps,
Navy, and Marines. At the same time, a quarter of a million women freed men for combat by volunteering to do noncombat military
jobs.
Korean War (1950-53) The end of World
War II brought an end to the draft, but only temporarily. In 1948, Congress passed a law requiring young men selected by local
draft boards to undergo 21 months of military training. That meant the infrastructure was already in place to replenish the
supply of U.S. soldiers in 1950, when North Korea invaded South Korea and launched the first major battle of the Cold War.
About 1.5 million men between the ages of 18 and 25 were drafted. With the threat of the draft hanging over them,
about 1.3 million more volunteered. Local draft boards continued to make decisions on how to classify registrants. For the
first time, the boards routinely deferred college men until they got their degrees. And everyone could avoid active duty by
volunteering for the National Guard.
Vietnam War (1955-75) Since the 1950s, the United States had been sending a steady stream of military advisors to a little-known country
in southeast Asia that was seen as susceptible to communist influence. By 1962, the number of advisors had reached 11,000.
U.S. involvement escalated rapidly in the mid-1960s, until by 1969, there were more than 540,000 U.S. military personnel battling
communist rebels in Vietnam. To feed the war machine, about 400,000 men a year were called before their draft boards in the mid-1960s. The Selective
Service System, which had received high marks from the public for fairness in previous wars, began to be seen as biased against
the poor and minorities. Protests against the draft became common on college campuses--in the academic year 1969-70, there
were 1,800 anti-war demonstrations--and draft evasion increased dramatically.
A little-known truth, though, is that only about
16 percent of the servicemen in Vietnam were drafted. Those who were drafted were often assigned the most dangerous jobs.
(For instance, 88 percent of infantry riflemen were draftees.) And that meant that draftees were killed in disproportionately
high numbers. Draftees accounted for more than half of the U.S. Army's battle deaths. Before the war was over, President
Richard Nixon moved to end the draft and convert the armed services to an all-volunteer force.
--Colleen Kelly KnowledgeNews
is brought to you by Every Learner, Inc., an independent small business dedicated to supporting lifelong learners. Copyright
© 2002-2005 Every Learner, Inc. All rights reserved
The Shortest War
In History
When the Sultan of Zanzibar died on August 28, 1896,
there was a dispute over who would be the next ruler of the tiny island off the east coast of Africa. The Sultan's cousin
Hamoud was appointed Hamad's successor, but his other cousin Khaled felt he deserved to rule. With 2000 followers, he entered
the royal palace and claimed the throne.
The British, who had a strong commercial interest
in the tiny nation because of spices and other exports, refused to accept Khaled's claim. A standoff ensued, and British gunboats
entered Zanzibar Harbor.
The next morning at 9:02 AM, the gunboats opened
fire on the royal palace, reducing it to rubble. At 9:40 AM, Khaled surrendered and lowered the flag, escaping to find haven
at the German Consulate. The single-battle war lasted only 38 minutes, making it the shortest in history.
On the 25th of August 1896 Sultan Hamad
died and his cousin Hamoud was declared as his successor by the acting British Consul, Sir Basil Cave. This appointment was
not met with agreement by Khaled, another cousin of Hamad who, as the son of Barghash, considered that he had the rightful
claim to the accession. By the time that Cave reached the royal palace Beit el Sahel, the doors were barred. Khaled had gained
access through a broken window, along with around 2000 supporters and had proclaimed himself Sultan, raising the Zanzibar
flag.
The British authorities refused to
recognise Khaled's claim and tension rose as a potentially explosive stand-off ensued. Cave had marines from the three British
ships in the harbour stationed around the town, evacuating Europeans to the British Consulate under heavy guard, where they
gathered excitedly on the roof to watch the drama unfold.
The night passed off without event
and the following morning two further ships arrived in Zanzibar harbour to reinforce the fleet. At dawn Rear Admiral Rawson
turned his guns on the palace and issued Khaled with an ultimatum. Either he was to surrender and walk out to the customs
shed by 9.00am or the fleet would open fire.
At 8.00am Khaled sent a message asking
for talks, but his request was curtly turned down. As the seconds ticked by the sweat must have stood out on the brows of
all involved. At 9.02am the fleet opened fire a barrage of shells on the palace and when the dust settled the building was
in ruins, with up to 500 bodies strewn amongst the rubble. At 9.40am, the flag was lowered as Khaled surrendered, escaping
through the maze of streets to seek sanctuary at the German consulate. From there he escaped to Mombasa, where he lived out
his life in exile.
The battle is officially listed in
the Guinness Book of Records as the shortest war in history
The Spanish-American War
Top Facts You Should Know About
The Spanish-American War
The Spanish American War began in 1898 as a direct result
of an incident that occurred in Havana harbor. On February 15, 1898, an explosion occurred on the USS Maine that
caused the deaths of over 250 American sailors. Even though later investigations have shown that the explosion was an accident
in the boiler room of the ship, public furor arose and pushed the country to war because of what was believed at the time
to be Spanish sabotage. Here are the essentials of the war that ensued.
1. Yellow Journalism Yellow
journalism is a term coined by the New York Times that refers to the sensationalism that had become common in the
newspapers of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. In terms of the Spanish-American War, the press had been sensationalizing
the Cuban revolutionary war that had been occurring for some time. The press exaggerated what was happening and how the Spanish
were treating the Cuban prisoners. The stories were based on truth but written with incendiary language causing emotional
and often heated responses amongst readers. This would become very important as the United States moved towards war.
2. Remember the Maine! On February 15, 1898, an explosion occurred on the USS Maine in Havana
Harbor. At that time, Cuba was ruled by Spain and Cuban rebels were engaged in a war for independence. Relations between America
and Spain were strained. When 266 Americans were killed in the explosion, many Americans, especially in the press, started
claiming that the event was a sign of sabotage on the part of Spain. "Remember the Maine!" was a popular cry. President
William McKinley reacted by demanding that among other things Spain give Cuba its independence. When they did not comply,
McKinley bent to popular pressure in light of the impending presidential election and went to Congress to ask for a declaration
of war.
3. Teller Amendment When William McKinley approached Congress to declare war against
Spain, they agreed only if Cuba was promised independence. The Teller Amendment was passed with this in mind and helped to
justify the war.
4. Fighting in the Philippines The Assistant Secretary of the Navy under
McKinley was Theodore Roosevelt. He went beyond his orders and had Commodore George Dewey take the Philippines from Spain.
Dewey was able to surprise the Spanish fleet and take Manila Bay without a fight. Meanwhile, Filipino rebel forces led by
Emilio Aguinaldo had been attempting to defeat the Spanish and continued their fight on land. Once America won against the
Spanish and the Philippines were ceded to the U.S., Aguinaldo continued to fight against the U.S.
5.
San Juan Hill and the Rough Riders Theodore Roosevelt volunteered to be part of the military and commanded the "Rough
Riders." He and his men led the charge up San Juan Hill which was located outside of Santiago. This and other fighting
resulted in the taking of Cuba from the Spanish.
6. Treaty of Paris Ends the Spanish American War The Treaty of Paris officially ended the Spanish American War in 1898. The war had lasted six months. The treaty
resulted in Puerto Rico and Guam falling under American control, Cuba gaining its independence, and America controlling the
Philippines in exchange for 20 million dollars.
7. Platt Amendment At
the end of the Spanish-American War, the Teller Amendment demanded that the U.S. would give Cuba its independence. The Platt
Amendment, however, was passed as part of the Cuban constitution. This gave the U. S. Guantanamo Bay as a permanent military
base.
By Martin Kelly, About.com
©2009 About.com, a part of The New York
Times Company. All rights reserved.
Top 5 Causes
of World War I
World War I, or as it was called at the time, the Great War, was the culmination of activity
and competition between European nations. Many of the leaders of the various nations involved were personally related which
made it somewhat of a 'family tiff', but a very costly one at that. America was decidedly isolationist throughout
most of the war. However, Germany's stance of unrestricted submarine warfare that began in 1917 led to America getting
involved in the war. The war began in 1914 and effectively ended with the armistice on November 11, 1918.
World
War 1 is actually much more complicated than a simple list of causes. While there was a chain of events that directly led
to the fighting, the actual root causes are much deeper and part of continued debate and discussion. This list is an overview
of the most popular reasons that are cited as the root causes of World War 1.
1. Mutual Defense Alliances Over time, countries throughout Europe made mutual defense agreements that would
pull them into battle. Thus, if one country was attacked, allied countries were bound to defend them. Before World War 1,
the following alliances existed: - Russia
and Serbia
- Germany and Austria-Hungary
- France and Russia
- Britain
and France and Belgium
- Japan and Britain
2. Imperialism Imperialism is when a country increases their power and wealth by bringing additional
territories under their control. Before World War 1, Africa and parts of Asia were points of contention amongst the European
countries. This was especially true because of the raw materials these areas could provide. The increasing competition and
desire for greater empires led to an increase in confrontation that helped push the world into World War I.
3. Militarism As the world
entered the 20th century, an arms race had begun. By 1914, Germany had the greatest increase in military buildup. Great Britain
and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time period. Further, in Germany and Russia particularly, the military
establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved
to war.
4. Nationalism Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer
be part of Austria Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. In this way, nationalism led directly to the War. But in a more
general way, the nationalism of the various countries throughout Europe contributed not only to the beginning but the extension
of the war in Europe. Each country tried to prove their dominance and power.
5. Immediate Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand The immediate cause of World War I that made all the aforementioned items come into play (alliances, imperialism,
militarism, nationalism) was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. In June 1914, a Serbian nationalist
assassinated him and his wife while they were in Sarajevo, Bosnia which was part of Austria-Hungary. This was in protest to
Austria-Hungary having control of this region. Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina. This assassination led to
Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. When Russia began to mobilize due to its alliance with Serbia, Germany declared war
on Russia. Thus began the expansion of the war to include all those involved in the mutual defense alliances.
By Martin Kelly,
About.com
©2009 About.com, a part of The New York Times
Company. All rights reserved.
December 7, 1941
PEARL HARBOR TIDBITS Japansese force consisted
of six carriers with 423 planes.
The attacking planes came in two waves; the first hit its target at 7:53 AM,
the second at 8:55.
2,403 died, 188 destroyed planes and a crippled Pacific Fleet that included 8 damaged or destroyed
battleships. Copyright 2006 by NextEra Media. All rights
reserved. Feel free to forward this, in its entirety, to others.
Roosevelt's "Day of Infamy"
Address to Congress On December 8,
at 12:30 p.m., Roosevelt addressed a joint session of Congress and the Nation via radio. The Senate responded with a unanimous
vote in support of war; only Montana pacifist Jeanette Rankin dissented in the House. At 4:00 p.m. that same afternoon, President
Roosevelt signed the declaration of war.
Roosevelt had misplaced his reading
copy immediately following the speech; it remained missing for 43 years. A Senate clerk took charge of it, endorsed it "Dec
8, 1941, Read in joint session," and filed it. In March 1984 an archivist located the reading copy among the Records
of the U.S. Senate, Record Group 46, located in the National Archives building, where it remains today.
Franklin D. Roosevelt's War Address: He made the most significant change in the critical first line, which originally
read, "a date which will live in world history."
President
Roosevelt delivered his "Day of Infamy" speech to a joint session of Congress on December 8, 1941.
Yesterday, December 7, 1941 -- a date which will live in infamy -- the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately
attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire
of Japan.
The United States was at peace with that Nation
and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its Government and its Emperor looking toward the maintenance
of peace in the Pacific. Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons had commenced bombing in Oahu, the Japanese Ambassador
to the United States and his colleague delivered to the Secretary of State of form reply to a recent American message. While
this reply stated that it seemed useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint
of war or armed attack....
....Always will we remember the character of the onslaught against us.
No
matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win
through to absolute victory.
I believe I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that
we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make very certain that this form of treachery shall never endanger
us again.
....I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday,
December seventh, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Copyright 2006 by NextEra Media.
All rights reserved. Feel free to forward this, in its entirety, to others.
The Korean War
by Denis Mueller
Long time diplomat Averill Harriman called it "a sour little
war." General Omar Bradley said, "It was the wrong war at the wrong time and in the wrong place." Korea was a turning point
in American foreign policy. Korea has been called the key to Asia and its misfortune has been located in such a critically
important area. All this has helped lead to its long bloody history.
The United States felt that an invasion of Japan would result
in a staggering amount of causalities. So at the Yalta Con- ference, the Soviet Union agreed to join the fight against Japan
and invade Korea. What no one figured on was the emer- gence of the atomic bomb and its terrible destruction, which would
make the Soviet invasion unnecessary.
The Soviets soon set up their own Puppet State and the United
States did the same. Both North Korea and South Korea's Syngman Rhee were determined to unite their country. In 1949, the
communists gained control of China and critics of the Truman administration cried out "Who lost China?"
The truth was far more complicated. The Nationalist Chinese led
by Chiang Kai-shek were a hopelessly corrupt government. The United States felt that with the French and the British out of
the way, due to their exhaustion from World War II, China would become ours. But the communists were fighting for an ideal
and the Nationalist government represented the old order. They were no match for Mao's armies.
Now, the stage was set. Stalin, for whatever the reasons, gave
a go ahead for North Korea to invade the south. Massive troop movements by the North Koreans began. It is hard to believe
that Rhee and the Americans did not know about these movements. But the North Korean invasion caught the South Koreans by
surprise and the communist forces advanced forward. The war consolidated support for the American military build up by the
Truman administration and the United Nations voted, with the Soviets boycotting the proceedings, to come to the aid of South
Korea.
UN forces were soon driven back to the tip of the island. Now,
allied commander General Douglas MacArthur planned a daring amphibious assault at Inchon. He would attack behind the enemy
lines and cut the communist forces in half. The plan was stunning success and the UN forces soon had the North Koreans on
the run. The question became would the allied forces cross the 38th parallel and follow the retreating communist forces?
For MacArthur, it was never a question. He felt the time was
right to destroy the communists and crossed into North Korea even though the Chinese warned him against such an attack. MacArthur
drove all the way up to the Yalu River. His public pronouncements defied Truman and seemed to be aimed at provok- ing a larger
war. While the Chinese warned MacArthur they would attack, MacArthur steadfastly maintained that they wouldn't. As Chinese
poured across the Yalu River into Korea, UN forces suffered terrible hardships and were forced to re- treat. Truman met with
MacArthur and told him that whatever the general felt about Truman, he was still President and his commander-in-chief.
MacArthur amazingly refused to understand the serious nature
of the problem and seemed more intent on fighting with Presi- dent Truman. When the state department intercepted a cable that
MacArthur had sent promising a larger war. Truman, left with no other choice, fired MacArthur for his insubordination. The
country was livid and when MacArthur returned home, the American public, unaware of his refusal to obey orders, gave him a
hero's welcome.
The UN forces finally stiffened and the war became a stalemate.
In 1952, former allied commander Dwight David Eisenhower became President. Ike promised to go to Korea and end the conflict.
In 1953, a shaky truce was signed and the line of demarcation became the 38th parallel. After three years of fighting every-
one was right back where they started. There were no winners in the Korean War, only losers.
Sources, Korea: MacArthur's War, Videocassette
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